Lecure Note Gaidai 2023

５. (1930s-1940s) Japan’s Mobilization I【Korean Forced Labor, Chinese Forced Labor, Allied POW, Korean BC Class War Criminals, Korean Comfort Women】

１．Japanese Sphere of Influence

• The Great Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere: a. Ideology, b. Resources
• Army Occupied Area / Navy Occupied Area

【Video: Know Your Enemy Japan】

２．Korean Mobilization

• Three Phases: a. corporate mobilization, b. governmental quotas, c.
• Issues of Legality
• “Forced Labor” 強制動員or “Forced Removal”強制連行

３．The Korean BC Class Japanese Criminals

• Colonial Korea in the late 1930s and 1940s
• Individual differences
• Translators and Prison Guards

３．The Korean Comfort Women

【Video: On Song Shin do】

• Lack of Education
• Early-teens and mid-teens
• The question of middle men
• The idea of the state

４．Chinese Mobilization

• Guerrillas turned into laborers
• Shipment to Japan and Manchuria

５．The Hanaoka Incident & Liu Renjin

• Slide
• 
  Refs:
  吉見義明『従軍慰安婦』岩波書店, 1995
  後藤乾一『東南アジアから見た近現代日本 : 「南進」・占領・脱植民地化をめぐる歴史認識』岩波書店, 2012.
  倉沢愛子『資源の戦争 : 「大東亜共栄圏」の人流・物流. 戦争の経験を問う』岩波書店, 2012.
  
  ４． (1920s and 1930s) Crisis of Empires: Manchuria, Southeast Asia, Pacific【Southeast Asia and Manchuria】

1. Japan’s territorial expansion
   A Theoretical Background (1890s)

• Yamagata Aritomo: One of the founder of the Japanese military; From the Choshu clan; Participant in the pro-emperor anti-foreigner movement; Commander during the Sino-Japanese war; his theory of sovereign line (主権線) and national benefit line (利益線).
• Influences of Lorentz Von Stein: A Hegelian scholar of public administration; Met with Ito Hirobumi (伊藤博文, the first prime minister of Japan, 4 time prime minister, established the constitution of Japan, governor of Korea ); used the term “social movement”; against universal suffrage and party politics; Advocated the idea of state-initiated, top-down social reform; A contemporary of Karl Marx.
• Yamagata – Von Stein exchange of opinions over the Russian interest due to the trans-Siberian railways and the British interest. Von Stein’s argument: Korea should be maintained neutral and become a buffer zone for the Japanese interest. Yamagata’s argument: the sovereign territory must be defended by expanding the sphere of influence.
• Question of neutrality: 1. Duty to allow　容認義務 (A neutral country should allow embargo over enemy territories), 2. Duty to avoid 回避義務 (A neutral country cannot support any of the belligerent parties), 3. Duty to prohibit　防止義務 (A neutral country must not provide any miliary support to a belligerent party or allow a belligerent party to use the neustral country’s territory as a military base.)
• Korea becoming both within a sphere of influence and a country that should be kept neutral.

B Treaties

• Shimonoseki Treaty (1895) : Korea be independent
• British occupation of Port Hamilton (巨文島）
• Portsmouth Treaty (1905) : Theodore Roosevelt’s mediation; Russia agreed to surrender its leases on Port Arthur大連港 and the Liaodong Peninsula遼東半島, to evacuate Manchuria, to cede the half of Sakhalinサハリン that it had annexed in 1875, and to recognize Korea as within Japan’s sphere of interest.

[与謝野晶子　君死にたもうことなかれ]

C Another phase of Japan’s territorial expansion

• Washington System (1920s): Japan as a Permanent Member of the League of Nations (Conspicuous absence of the US); Naval force ratio: US: UK: Japan = 5: 5: 3; Mandated Territories in the South Pacific (Like Japanese Palau; British Palestein); Outlawry of war; Chinese antagonism against Japan over Japan’s 21 demands; Rise of communism and red scare
• Rise of Ishiwara Kanji石原莞爾 and his theory of the World Final War 世界最終戦論
• Backed a conspiracy that resulted in the Manchurian incident.
• Japan’s withdrawal from the League of Nations; The end of the Washington System; Repeated Coup d’etat within Japan over the imperial system, the conflict between pro-emperor faction　皇道派 and military hierchy faction　統制派

［Migration Museum Pamphlet］

2. Karayuki-san
   A Background

• A failure of geopolitical thinking.
• Chronicle food shortage, huge population increase
• Industrialization usually induces massive poverty, and labor force is usually very gendered.
  
  Oshin　おしん
  [link] https://www2.nhk.or.jp/archives/search/special/detail/?d=asadra014

B Three works on Karayukisan
The autobiography of Muraoka Iheiji. 『村岡平治自伝』
Feminist writer Yamazaki Tomoko wrote a very popular documentary called “Sandakan Hachiban Shokan” (No. 8 Prostitution House in Sandakan). 山崎朋子『サンダカン八番娼館』

[Movie clip]
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oG1PLEFu0vY

A local writer from this region named Morisaki Kazue left a rather striking description of Karayukisan en titled Karayuki-san　森崎和江『からゆきさん』

3. Japanese migrants [map of the Philippines]

• Benguet Road and the myth of the Japanese industriousness
• Japanese bazar
• Manila and Davao as population centers. Esp. the latter with 20,000 Jpn migrants
• Cebu: several 100s, 1500 at most. One Okinawan family named Nagamine
• No strategic products but important port, a midway to Mindanao or Papua New Guinea
• They could not suppress the guerrilla activiites, a number of war crimes. Near the end of the war, the Japanese forces were outpowered by the Filipino guerrillas
• Refugees from Palau, incl. a number of Okinawans and comfort women
• As opposed to 1500 civilians, 15,000 military personnel
• A military transport was sunk off the island of Bohol, Formation of Japanese volunteer forces, High school principal Hirose
• Depot Unit, Commander Aoki Kunichika’s Decision [News Paper]
• What happened to the mix-blood people
• The end of the Japanese community: forced repatriation, Assimilation and concealment of Japanese nationality => The issue of statelessness

Refs.:
加藤陽子『戦争の日本近現代史』講談社現代新書, 2002
Bersales, Jose Eleazar R., and Taihei Okada. The Japanese Community in Cebu, 1900-1945. Cebu: Tres de Abril General Services Inc. , 2023.
Chaps.14-16, Jansen, Marius B. The Making of Modern Japan. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002.
Chap. 3, Murphy, R. Taggart. Japan and the Shackles of the Past. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2014.

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３． (Late 19th Century to 1910s) Japan’s expansionism and local societies, Overseas Expansion: Taiwan and Korea 【Korean Peninsula and Taiwan】

1. Three States in East Asia
   A. China

• The Manchurian emperor and his lineage
• Migration of the Han people from its proper territory to the interior of the Eurasian continent and to Southeast Asia and Taiwan. This was prevented from Japan and Korea due to their tight border control
• Major losses against the West in the two opium wars

B. Korea

• A single linage kingdoms【chart】
• The center of China sentiment 箕子朝鮮
• A rigid class system: local gentry called Yangbang and a massive number of slaves

C. Japan

• Decentralized system with warlords in the provinces
• A conflict between the pro-Tokugawa Shogunate powers and the anti-Tokugawa pro-emperor factions
• Without a major war, the latter won.
• The unification of the nation of Japan by resurrecting the old authority, emperor.

1. Japanese modernity and its turn to expansionism
   A The abolishment of the class system => This caused discontents among the samurai class

• Saigo Takamori’s （西郷隆盛）rebellion
• Iwakura Tomomi’s （岩倉具視）official mission to Europe
• Abolishment of the untouchables.
• Anti-Buddhist movement (1868-1875) 廃仏毀釈, Place of Emperor and his authority not as religion（宗教）, but rituals（祭祀, worshiping or ritual）.
• Restructuring of Han（藩） into Ken (prefectures、県)
• From Ryukyu-han to Okinawa-Ken,prohibition to make tribute to China, prohibition to use the Chinese calendar, reforms like other prefectures, military station
• Now Emperor is at the helm. A need to renegotiate diplomatic relations. An official letter from the new government of Japan 書契 was refused by the Korean government for the inclusion of certain Chinese characters 奉勅、皇　=> Japnese elites anger towards the Koreans

B Unequal treaties （不平等条約）in East Asia: open ports, traveling permits, extraterritoriality（治外法権）, taxation, all imposed by the Western states

• The goal shared by the East Asian states to get rid of these unequal treaties.
• Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty（1871 日清修好条規）: Essentially equal, Its article of amity was considered by the West as a mutual defense article.
• However, Japan’s treaty with Korea was acutely unequal. Kanwado Incident (1875)、Japan-Korea Friendship and Trade Treaty (日朝修好条規) open ports in Korea, extraterritoriarity for the Japanese ()

C Treatment of the shipwrecked

• Traditionally, the shipwrecked was returned to its homeland. Under the Sakoku policy, those who returned were severely ostracized. The Okinawans (Ryukyuans) hid its identity as we talked about.
• The Killing of some 40 Okinawans: They were killed by the Paiwan people, indigenous population.

D. Japanese envoy’s visto to Beijing: To finalize the treaty, Soejima Taneomi negotiated with Emeperor Tongzhi, had the killing of Okinawans discussed between his subordinates and the Chinese counterparts.

E. The Chinese argument: There are “civilized” and “uncivilized” in Taiwan. The Paiwans are “uncivilized”. Thus they were not subjects of the Emperor.

F. Japan’s reaction: The Meiji state had to placate the Satsuma Samurai’s opinions that Japan should invade Korea. The elite needed to divert this sentiment to the weaker Taiwan. Thus, they came up with the argument that, since Ching Dynasty did not recognize the Taiwanese residents as its national, Taiwan is terra nullius, so that Japan has a right to occupy it.

G: Aftermath: Although the Chinese finally paied indemnities, Satsuma Samurai’s sent its military units to Taiwan and the state recognized it. They fought against the Paiwan people for the next half a year and finally conquered them.

4. Consolidation of territories II: Korean Peninsula The backdrop is perhaps more straight than the Taiwanese case. The Japanese sent its battleship to the offshore of Seoul and started to investigate its coastline (1875). American and French interventions=> Donghuk Movement東学. By this time, Britain had its navy at Hong Kong; the Russians were building its military base in Vladivostok. In addition to this, the Americans starated to pay attention to the east part of the Pacific ocean. The Japanese argument was, in order to protect itself from the Western powers, it needed to place Korea under its sphere of influence.
   In the swing between the reformers and conservatives, the Japanese decided to colonize Korea. It got rid of the Chinese influence as a result of the Sino-Japanese war (1894-1895) and the Russian influence by defeating them in the Russo-Japanese war (1905). It signed a alliance treaty with Britain in 1902 and a secret treaty with the United States to recognize each others colonial territories, namely Korea and The Philippines.
   Japan was rather deliberate in its efforts to colonize. First it sent its advisor to the Korean court. Second, it took away its diplomatic power. Then, in 1910, it formally colonized Korea by forcing its emperor sign the treaty to be colonized.
   
5. Colonial Wars
   At the turn of the 19/20th century, there were three major colonial wars: the Boer Wars, the wars for colonization of Korea, and Spanish-American War. The latter two had major implications in East and Southeast Asia.

https://nissinsensonishikie.jimdo.com/%E3%83%86%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E-%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6%E5%88%A5%E4%BD%9C%E5%93%81%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88/#gsc.tab=0
002大鳥公使韓廷参内之図
056　日清戰國凱旋之圖

These wars were brutal and clearly separate from the war traditions of each locale. Mass deaths ensued. Just to delineate some elements:
A. Civilization mentality: the indigenous were thought as lesser human.
B. Superior weapons: Krug rifles
C. War experiences upto that point: Indian Wars in the US; Sino-Japanese War,
D. Secular vs. religious,Donghak Peasant Revolution, i.e. that the regular soldiers were fighting against religious fanatics.
E. scientific mission and propagation of commercial farming

Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895)

• independence of Korea
• Cessation of Ryaotong Peninsula, Taiwan and Hoko archipelago　=> Three country intervention and the Ryaotong Peninsula was returned to Qing.
• Huge indemnities
• Open ports

6．Korean resistance against the Japanese rule

• Conservatives （Daewongun 大院君、Empress Myeongseong閔妃)＝＞anti-Japanese, pro-Russian, Myeongseong was brutally killed by the Japanese.
• Reformers (Kim Ok-gyun 金 玉均 )=> Pro Japanese, learn from Japan、(Kim Hong-jip 金弘集)、Prime Minister under the Japanese influence, killed by the mobs
• Peasant war => Donghak東学 => Anti-Japanese uprsing – Police brutality by the Japanese colonial state until 1919.

Ref.:
Cumings, Bruce. Korea’s Place in the Sun : A Modern History. New York: W.W. Norton, 1997.
糟谷, 憲一『朝鮮の近代』世界史リブレット 43. 山川出版社, 1996.
趙景達『近代朝鮮と日本』岩波書店 2012.

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２．(19th Century) Japan’s expansionism and local societiesＩ, Domestic Colonialism: Ainu and Okinawa 【Hokkaido and Okinawa】

• 1.The Japanese
  A Brief overview
  • The Sixth Century national consciousness theory
  • Rather firmly set of periodization: Asuka (593 AD- 710), Nara(710 – 794, T), Heian(794 – 1185, T), Kamakura(1185 – 1333, S), Muromachi(1336 – 1573, S), Sengoku incl Azuchi Momoyama(1493 – 1603, War Lords), Edo(1603 – 1868, S), Meiji(1868 – 1912, T), Taisho(1912 – 1926, T), Showa incl. GHQ occupation (1926 – 1989T) …
  • The origin argument: Kitakyushu (Northern Kyushu Island) or Kinai (Nara and its vicinities)
  • Previously, a rice-based culture system. Now, diverse occupations based on diverse products.
  • Racial other: Kumaso熊襲, Hayato隼人 (Those in Kyushu), Emishi蝦夷 (Those in Tohoku), Ainu
  • Separation from Sinocentrism; Hideyoshi’s invasion of Korea
  • The First Shogun Sakanoue Tamuramaro: Kiyomizu Temple; Aterui Monument in it.
  • National Traveling and Trading system. Ex. Climing Mt. Fuji
• B The Sinocentric system
  • The Koreans, the Ryukyuans and some of the Southeast Asian States as tributary states.
  • The Japanese, squarely in the sanctioned trade category
  • The Indians and Europeans off the chart.
  • The Mongolians and Manchues challenged this system and they were quite quite success at one time or another.

Refs:
岸本美緒『東アジアの｢近世｣』山川出版社, 1998.
尾形勇、岸本美緒『中国史. 世界各国史3』山川出版社, 1998.
Smits, Gregory. Visions of Ryukyu : Identity and Ideology in Early-Modern Thought and Politics. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1999. (グレゴリー・スミッツ著 ; 渡辺美季訳『琉球王国の自画像 : 近世沖縄思想史』ペリカン社, 2011)
渡辺, 美季. 近世琉球と中日関係. 東京: 吉川弘文館, 2012.
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１．Oct. 2 Guidance, Overall Views on the 20th Century History

1. What is East Asia? What is Southeast Asia?
   • A East Asia
     • Chinese characters
     • Confucianist tradition
     • Sinocentrism: Son of Heaven <=> barbarians
     • Center-Provinces/Tributary/Trading
     • Zhang He’s voyage to Africa
   • B Southeast Asia
     • Lands Below the Wind
     • World Religions flowing in.
     • No land power.
     • Trade as the norm in its entire history
     • Scarcely populated
     • Tropical natural resources for the Europeans, Indians, Arabs, Chinese and Japanese.
   • C The West
     • Industrial Revolution- Britain and other continental countries, then the US and Japan
     • The treaty of Westphalia (1648)
     • Chirstianity
     • Roman alphabet
     • Scientific Knowledge
       
2. World Empires and Modern Empires
   • A World Empires
     • The Mesopotamia, Nile, Yellow River, Ganges
     • Population Center => Cities
     • Food Storage
     • Written Records (exc. The Inca Empire’s Quipu)
     • Tamed animals
     • Its power is always incomplete
     • Oftentimes, multi-religious
       
     • Politics of differences: No national equality
     • The fundamental structure of governance. Republics are the exception.
   • Modern Empires
     • European Origin
     • Gun Powder (from China)
     • Racial hiearchy
     • Secular
     • Scientific Method

Refs:
McNeill, William Hardy. A World History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967 (ウィリアム・H・マクニール『世界史』 中央公論新社, 2001）.
ウィリアム・H・マクニール、北川知子訳『マクニール世界史講義』ちくま学芸文庫, 2016.
Diamond, Jared. Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York : W.W. Norton & Co. , c1997（ジャレド・ダイアモンド、倉骨彰訳『銃・病原菌・鉄 : 一万三〇〇〇年にわたる人類史の謎』 草思社 2000.）
Crosby, Alfred W. Ecological imperialism : the biological expansion of Europe, 900-1900. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 2004. （クロスビー, アルフレッド・W.　佐々木昭夫訳『ヨーロッパの帝国主義 : 生態学的視点から歴史を見る』摩書房, 2017.
岡田泰平「植民地主義と向き合う――過ぎ去らない帝国の遺産――」東京大学教養学部歴史学部会編『歴史学の思考法 : 東大連続講義』岩波書店, 2020, 95～112頁

（On Japanese History)
Gordon, Andrew. A Modern History of Japan : From Tokugawa Times to the Present. New York ; Tokyo: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Goto-Jones, Christopher S. Modern Japan : A Very Short Introduction. Very Short Introductions ; 202. Vol. 202. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
Reischauer, Edwin O. Japan : The Story of a Nation. 4th ed ed. New York ; Tokyo: McGraw-Hill, 1990.